What best explains people's willingness to work hard Essay

What best explains people's willingness to work hard - Essay Example anging workplace; motivated employees do not leave when the company is trying to survive in the market, and motivated employees are more productive (ONeil 1994). If the managers want to be effective, they need to understand what drives people work better. It is the complex task and requires the individual approach to every single employee. For example, the research shows that as employees earn more, money becomes less motivating and as they get older the interesting job is of higher value to them. Understanding what motivates people has been analyzed by many theorists. Adam states that employees want to find the balance between themselves and other employees – equity is when employee’s outcomes is equal to inputs and is equal to outcomes of the other employees. Maslow believed that employees have five levels of needs: basic, safety, social, ego and self-actualizing. At first the lower level needs should be satisfied in order for employees to be motivated. Herzberg divid ed motivation into two sections: motivators (achievement, recognition) and hygienes (pay, security). Schein has analyzed motivation from the standpoint of employees and has based his judgment on expectation theory – if the expectations are met, the individual is satisfied and remains in the company while if the expectations are not met, the individual either leaves or deems his expectations as unrealistic or unimportant and stays. McGregor has developed two theories: X and Y describing two different attitudes to workforce motivation and has left it up to managers to decide which one is more appropriate for the given company. Each of these theories has its advantages and disadvantages. Interestingly, Maslow has developed his motivation theory when he observed the behavior of monkey – he noticed that some on the needs take precedence over others. For example, thirst is stronger need than hunger. He continued this idea and created the hierarchy of needs with broader layers: The

Question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 11

Question - Essay Example The tasks of Joachim were to make sure that the world was still persuaded that Germany wanted candidly an arms limitation agreement while making sure that this agreement was not developed at all. He later became a great friend of the Fuhrer, to the hatred of members who had serve for a long period of time, who though that Joachim had no talent and was insincere. Despite the hatred from the other members, Joachim was made the Foreign Minister and Ambassador to Britain (Keylor, 2010). In the run up to World War II, Joachim played a crucial role in brokering the pact of Steel with the non-aggression pact of Soviet German and fascist Italy. This was referred to the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact. The influence of Ribbentrop pact deteriorated after 1941. After he was detained in June 1945, Joachim was tried at the Nuremberg Trials and found guilty of war crimes for the role he had in pioneering World War II and facilitating the Holocaust (Keylor, 2010). Joachim von Ribbentrop then became the fir st individuals who were hanged as their death sentences in 1946. Ford was an American industrialist and the forefather of the Ford Motor Company. On the other hand, he sponsored the growth of the mass production assembly line method. Ford manufactured and developed the first automobile that a lot of Americans in the middle class could manage to pay for. In addition, he was well recognized for his passivity in the beginning of World War I (Keylor, 2010). He opposed heavily the entry of America in World War II and went on to believe that international businesses could cause the affluence of heading off wars. He went on to state that the war was the product of financiers who are greedy and looking for profit in destruction of humans. In 1939, Henry Ford claimed that the torpedoing of United States merchant ships by submarines owned by the Germans was the result of conspiratorial happenings that financier war makers undertook. The

Interventions to Reduce Risk of Sexual Abuse

Interventions to Reduce Risk of Sexual Abuse Introduction Various intervention strategies have been implemented to try and reduce the risk of sexual abuse in those persons with a learning disability. There is a general consensus that education programmes directed towards the perpetrator are least effective and that techniques aimed at fostering assertiveness and communication in the learning disabled adult are the best preventative measures. In this review I found there to be a significant lack of research that measured the effectiveness of these interventions and further support and investigation is needed into researching these intervention strategies, advocacy and community awareness studies. Methods of obtaining research In recent years the number of articles on ‘sexual abuse in people with a disability’ found in databases such as Medline and Proquest have increased although there is still a considerable lack of quality statistically significant research. Political and media exposure has unsurfaced the need for this group to be protected. For example, the European ‘Valuing People’ agenda unsurfaced serious inequities.3 Some of the most in-depth studies come from research in which women with learning disabilities have been interviewed directly about their experiences including the ground breaking work of Michelle McArthy.3   A number of factors can limit the disclosure of abuse and lead to an underestimation of the extent of this problem. For example, an individual that has had limited exposure to prevention programs and sexuality education may not recognise the abusive nature of sexual contact they have experienced.4 Disclosure may also be inhibited by feelings of confusion, guilt or denial especially if the abuse occurred from a care-giver or a person that was trusted by the victim.4 This paper aims to criticize interventions and assess the most appropriate methods used to help educate those with learning disabilities about sexual abuse and foster prevention rather than looking at ways to support post-abuse. I haven’t addressed the issue on whether sterilization is appropriate in this review as it steers away from the autonomy of the mentally disabled adult and it is more appropriate to concentrate on education as a tool of prevention and looking at the efficacy of training methods. Method of obtaining papers for literature review All papers in ‘British Journal of Social Work’, Medline via PubMed and Medline via ProQest from 1995 – 2005. Keywords used were ‘learning disability’, ‘sexual abuse’, ‘mental handicap’, ‘prevention’, ‘intellectual disability’, ‘consent sexual relationships’, ‘learning disabilities’, ‘sexual act’, ‘sexual malpractice’. Search terms were grouped as follows:- ‘education, sexual abuse, disabled’, ‘education, sexual abuse, handicap’, ‘education, sexual, disabled’, ‘assertiveness training, sexuality, disabled’ and ‘sexuality, training, mentally disabled.’ Papers found that concentrated on adults only were used and those articles found on sexual abuse pertaining to children were omitted apart from one paper that examines the use of a Computer-Based Safety Programme that could be useful in edu cating mentally disabled adults. Papers that addressed interventions used to prevent abuse from occurring were included in the review. Definitions A ‘learning disability’ is defined as â€Å"a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the reduced ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.†2 Disorders not included are â€Å"learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities or mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.†2 It is not necessarily the person’s learning disability that makes them more vulnerable to the sexual abuse as to the situation they are placed in so that if we took a person of normal mental capacity and placed them in the same environment the risk of sexual abuse for that person would be greate r as well. Sexual Abuse refers to any form of sexual contact to a vulnerable party and violates the victim’s rights as they are not fully aware of the situation. Sexual exploitation is evident when done by anyone in a position of trust or authority towards a person or where the victim has a relationship of dependency with the perpetrator. There are various definitions of sexual abuse used in the literature and widely diverging definitions tend to be used in studies of adults with intellectual disabilities.5 Brown and Turk (1992) also distinguished between non-contact and contact abuse. Another definition of sexual abuse was â€Å"any sexual contact which is unwanted and/or unenjoyed by one partner and is for the sexual gratification of the other†.6 This is still ambiguous as sometimes sexual contact is misunderstood and it could still be enjoyed it is just that the victim is unaware of what the full extent of the act means. I believe that a better definition of sexual abuse is any sexual act performed on a victim in a position of vulnerability. That is one party is not fully aware of the act being performed and there is an imbalance in power. Could this then exclude those persons with an intellectual disability from having a relationship with a person of normal mental capacity? Perhaps, if there is balance in t he relationship and the learning disabled adult can make decisions in other aspects of the relationship this would be a more equally distributed balance of power and this person may be able to fully make decisions on relationships at their own accord. There are varying degrees of mental handicap and this makes research difficult as ethical dilemmas on whether there is full consent and understanding of sexual contact can be ambiguous. However, there are also clear cut cases such as when a disabled person is institutionalized or the primary care-giver is the perpetrator. For the purpose of this review it is important to move more onto preventing the abuse in those that are vulnerable and critiquing methods used to empower those with disabilities rather than focus on the definition of abuse. Protection of those that are in a more vulnerable position and empowerment of individuals already victims of abuse should be fore-front in the social literature. Prevalence of Sexual Abuse There is an increase in the prevalence of sexual abuse in children with learning disabilities. A study conducted by the US National Center on Child Abuse and neglect (1993) found that caregivers abused children with disabilities 1.7 times more than children without disabilities.11 The violation of children can foster the development of low self-esteem and lead onto abuse into their adult lives. A research study by Sobsey found that the risk estimate of abuse of people with disabilities may be as high as an increase of five times greater than the risk for those that aren’t disabled.8 A study by Zemp (2002) found that 64% of female and 50% of male participants were sexually exploited and that disabled room mates were the predominant group of perpetrators for the male and third important for the female participants in the study.9 The statistics in the current literature does vary and â€Å"the wide variation in the figures is due to differences of abuse, the differences in the populations sampled and differences in research methods.†7 Vulnerability For children with disabilities the risk factors for sexual child abuse are increased. A child with a learning disorder has more difficulty in understanding and communicating and has an increased level of vulnerability. As they are unable to understand tasks as well as other normal children of the same age they are often brought up with low self-esteem as their care givers perform more of the tasks for them than they would for other children. This also leads onto a greater vulnerability and increased risk of sexual abuse than what is seen in children of the same age and normal development.1 This low self-esteem can continue into adulthood resulting in the learning disabled adult also possessing low-self esteem and greater risk factors of vulnerability in comparison to other adults. For those adults with intellectual disabilities there is a difficult balance to be met between empowering the individual to make their own sexual choices and to be leading more of a normal life and to claim their sexual rights and protect them from sexual abuse.4 Murphy et al (2004) suggests that services should be guided as to whether a person has the capacity to make their own sexual choices, however, the ability to assess this capacity to consent hasn’t been clearly defined. It is obvious that a caregiver would be taking advantage of their position of trust and it would be defined as sexual abuse. However, relationships outside this sphere are much more difficult to assess. Sexual acts between two adults of diminished mental capacity for instance and with adults outside the care-giving role. A more appropriate definition in this case may be â€Å"where a person is used by another in order to satisfy certain needs without being informed or giving consent†. This focus is more on the perpetrator as satisfying their sexual needs while the victim does not gain anything by the relationship so the victim is in a position of vulnerability and may not be able to represent themselves. Review of Intervention Techniques as a method of preventing Sexual Abuse in the learning disabled adult Lobbying the Government and changes to policy The manner in which sexual abuse is dealt with in a community reflects the way disabled people are regarded by in society. A report was released in 2004 that spoke about the changes the government is try to initiate as part of the ‘Valuing people: Moving Forward Together’ project.12 According to the Health and Social Care Act 2001, an annual report must be given to Parliament on learning disability. The Leaning Disability Task Force report for 2004 was called ‘Rights, Independence and inclusion’ and addressed the Sexual Offences Bill. Part of the Bill that talks about capacity and consent was changed to reflect the rights of people with learning disabilities to a full sexual life. The British Home Office is now working on helping others understand the Sexual Offences Act fully. Change has taken place and inclusion in helping to form government policy can be considered ‘morally and ethically the most appropriate form of education’. The acceptance of the disabled person as an individual is important not only at school level but right through to parliament. Behavior modification in the learning disabled adult; empowering the victim It has been suggested that programs aimed at re-educating the perpetrator have had little success and interventions aimed at modifying the behavior of the victim have a much greater success at reducing the risk of sexual abuse in adults with learning disabilities (Bruder et al, 2005). To be able to protect themselves against perpetrators, the adult with learning disabilities needs to learn how to assess whether a situation is inappropriate, must have the assertiveness to say no and seek help and to report the event. The eleven papers chosen for review are listed in Table 1 in the Appendix. Burke et al, 1998, suggested that one way a care provider can lower the risk of sexual abuse in a learning disabled adult is to help provide functional communication skills. The adult may use their own form of communication whether this be symbols or words and their form of communication should be encouraged so that they are able to express their needs. Communication is empowering to the individual and enables them to be able to get a message to their Caregiver. Often those with intellectual disabilities are hard to understand and the carer should ask themselves if they have tried to read non-verbal behavior or begun to establish an alternative form of communication. Burke et al, 1998, also suggested that it was the Carer’s role to provide sexual education to limit the risk of abuse. This education then becomes a way of communicating the common language of sexual health. It is important that the individual understands what appropriate sexual behavior is and understands how to trust their feelings by ‘validating, rather than dismissing or minimizing, them’. The person also needs to be made aware of the appropriate forms of touch so that they can maintain and understand personal boundaries. Burke has suggested that these adults need to have a plan for when somebody doesn’t obey their personal boundary rules so that they are able to get themselves out of the situation and avoid sexual abuse altogether. It doesn’t mean being afraid of strangers but learning how to remain safe. Burke has suggested ways of empowering the learning disabled adult and reducing the risk of sexual abuse. These methods may not be useful when the caregiver is the perpetrator and it could be suggested that a teacher outside the carer role provide this type of education so that the individual is then able to recognise when a person in close association with them has crossed personal boundaries. It does not give ways to avoid abuse altogether and aims to reduc e the risk when the person knows what types of behavior is inappropriate and requires reporting. The main downfall of Burke’s research was that she didn’t quantitatively measure the reduction in risk of introducing a communication skills program so further research is needed to assess whether the implementing education on sexuality and encouraging communication strategies actually lower the incidence of sexual abuse. Earle, (2001), agreed that those with learning disabilities are especially vulnerable to sexual abuse due to the disabled person’s dependent environment, difficulty in articulating their abuse and understanding when abuse has taken place. She suggested that ‘whilst disabled people have the right to be protected from sexual abuse and exploitation, it could be argued that a concern with this risk should not be used as a smokescreen to deny disabled people their sexual identity.’ Earle also postulated that by not discussing sexuality and creating an atmosphere where ‘sexuality is taboo’, this may in fact increase the incidence or worsen the experience of the sexual abuse. Earle also found that nurses tended to think of their disabled patients as asexual and in denial did not address the sexual needs of the patient at all. She also found that disabled individuals have been unable to access information and services on sexuality. Earle admits in this paper that ‘the purpose of this paper has not been to provide answers’,’ nor has it been possible to explore all of these issues in depth’ but to show that the issue of sexuality should be given greater emphasis in a holistic health care framework. The missing link is whether empowering the disabled individual to make their own sexual choices and discover their own sexual identity actually reduces the incidence of sexual abuse. Teaching refusal skills to sexually active adolescents was introduced in a study by Warzak et al (1990). The training was given to sexually active handicapped female adolescents who lacked an effective refusal strategy. Role-plays were used to help teach effective strategies using ‘the who, what, when and where of situations which resulted in unwanted sexual intercourse.’ The skillfulness and effectiveness of the subjects’ refusal skills were judged to be improved as a result of the training. This study did not have a control group. The research did have a long-term follow up after 12 months and this showed a decrease in sexual activity for each girl. Singer (1996) introduced a programme to seven intellectually disabled adults that lived in a residential group home. The programme consisted of weekly sessions of assertiveness training, group exercises, role-plays and information giving. The participants had previously been subjected to verbal, physical and emotional abuse by previous members of staff and Singer aimed to teach them how to respond appropriately and assertively in situations of abuse. The trainers assessed each client individually to evaluate how they would initially act in a situation of abuse and also measured their social behavior, assertiveness skills, use of verbal and non-verbal behavior and reading and writing skills. They were given ratings on assertiveness in each role play and it was found that after the training was implemented, the participants did not show improvements in scores where authority figures were the perpetrators but that an overall general improvement in assertiveness scores was established. T he staff did comment that the residents showed an increase in confidence, communication and positive attitude post-intervention. This type of study would be great implemented on a larger scale. The difficulty in establishing whether this research has been effective is due to the small numbers. The long-term effects of the trainings are also unknown as there has not been any follow up study. The research study is lacking statistical analysis and a control group so it is difficult to assess whether the trainings actually reduced the risk of further sexual abuse. Mazzucchelli (2001) introduced a ‘Feel Safe pilot study of protective behaviors programme for people with intellectual disability.’ The programme was designed to increase personal safety skills by teaching ways of recognizing unsafe situations and developing a range of coping and problem-solving skills. This research study implemented the use of a control group. There were ten participants in each group. This intervention program was originally developed in the 1970s for children and was then used in this research study with learning disabled adults. Another main focus of the training was â€Å"Nothing is so awful that we can’t talk to someone about it.† The training programme involved the research group participating in role-plays and then evaluating how they behaved to promote self-regulation of behavior as well as using the role-plays in real, everyday situations. Questionnaires were used to evaluate quality of life and protective behavior skills and con ducted by assessors that weren’t involved in delivery of the programme. The experimental group did show a statistically significant increase in performance on the Behavioral Skills Evaluation in comparison to the control group from pre-test to follow-up suggesting that the programme did improve favorable behavioral skills but did not improve the participant’s quality of life. The six-week follow up may have been too soon to appropriately evaluate any change in quality of life. Mazzucchelli also had a small number of participants which led to difficulties in showing statistical significance for the research. The themes which showed the greatest increase from pre-test to post-test were â€Å"we all have the right to feel safe†, â€Å"it is acceptable to be non-compliant or ‘break rules’ during an emergency and self-assertion skills. The researchers Lee et al (2001), examined the effectiveness of a computer-based safety programme for children with severe learning difficulties that could be implemented into an adult training programme. Three groups were established. One group was offered the safety programme, one was a control and the third group was given the intervention programme much later in the study. All of the participants were tested for cognitive ability and knowledge of personal safety concepts pre-training. Two post-tests were conducted 1 week and 2 weeks after the safety programme. There were 18 candidates in the control group and 31 children in the experimental group. None of the schools had previously implemented formal personal safety training programmes although some of the teachers had started to discuss personal safety with their students. The computer programme went through role-plays illustrating types of behavior and the experimental group was divided into ‘less able’ and ‘ more able’ depending on cognitive ability. The researchers used two interviews to establish the student’s perception of authority figures and their knowledge of personal safety. MANOVA analysis found authority to have an independent effect on the respondent’s safety scores and this authority awareness was independent of the participant’s cognitive ability. These researchers found that those involved in the safety programme have significantly improved their knowledge of safety concepts and maintained this increase in knowledge for 15 weeks. There was also a statistically significant result in those going through the programme for the skill of ‘being able to tell someone’ and the study illustrated that they would repeatedly tell someone even after being dismissed the first time and they could also provide a reason for this disclosure. The research showed that there was no significant increase in knowledge attained by the control group leaving t hese untrained students as potential targets by perpetrators. Lee et al (2001) also found that the increase in knowledge post-training was greater in the ‘more able’ group so that training may need to be repeated for those with lower cognitive ability. By the end of the programme all the students were able to produce a list of people that they would tell if they experienced an incident. The researchers also explored the importance of acknowledging authority issues when designing a personal safety programme. This research illustrates that learning disabled students can benefit from training programmes on personal safety. The implementation of these programmes with adults may prove beneficial. Education of teachers, health care providers and caregivers Howard-Barr et al (2005) explored the beliefs in teachers regarding sexuality training of mentally disabled students. The researchers also investigated the range of sexuality topics they would teach and their professional preparation. The participants in the study believed that sexual education should be taught, they rated their current delivery as inadequate and expressed that they needed much more preparation. The number of participants was moderate (n=494) although only 206 candidates actually returned the questionnaire resulting in a response rate of 42%. There were 36 sexuality topics presented and out of the top 6 most important skills, the concept of personal skills was rated the highest. Teachers of mentally disabled students rated personal skills topics such as finding help, assertiveness, communication and friendship more important than human development topics such as reproduction, anatomy and body image. Subjects such as masturbation, human sexual response and shared sexu al behavior were the most neglected topics. The limitations of this study included the inability to assess the quality of teaching and whether the teacher was actually addressing any specific areas of the 36 topics. This research topic did not address the effectiveness of education as a risk reduction method for sexual abuse however it did examine the beliefs of the teachers in the type of topics covered in sexuality education of mentally disabled students. It also revealed a general feeling of professional inadequacy in this area. Fronek et al (2005), conducted a research study that examined the effectiveness of a Sexuality Training Program for patients post-spinal cord injury. They found that there was evidence to support consideration of the client sexuality and a lack of training given to caregivers in this area. This study evaluated the attitudes of staff before and post-sexuality training. The researchers based the training on the Specific Suggestions and Intensive Therapy (PLISSIT) model. The sample group (n=89) was divided into a control group and experimental group randomly. A series of one-day workshops were conducted to the experimental group. Topics covered included identification of professional boundaries, limit setting, maintaining boundaries, development of sexual identity and case studies. This training programme was not focusing on the prevention of sexual abuse, rather the education of staff to being able to be open and teach their patients about sexuality. The staff assigned to the treatment group showed a significant improvement on all subscales of the KCAASS (Knowledge, Comfort, Approach and Attitudes towards Sexuality Scale) post-training and these changes were still significant three months later. In comparison, the control group did not show any significant changes on the KCAASS. Those patients suffering from spinal cord injury are not necessarily affected cognitively and may be only physically affected so this study is limited in assessing how sexuality training of staff could benefit the needs of people with a learning disability. The training was conducted over a one day period and a longer programme may be more beneficial to staff. There was a reporting bias shown by the control group as they were not assigned to receive training initially and the researchers believe that feelings of resentment and a tendency to over-estimate knowledge resulted from being assigned into the control group. Whether improvements can be maintained for longer periods of time (>3 mon ths) is uncertain and refresher courses may be necessary. The research did not examine the effect this education has on the patient in improving their own sexual identity and further studies would be useful in examining whether this limits the risk of sexual abuse. The PLISSIT model has been widely used to implement staff training and sexuality rehabilitation interventions within various clinical disciplines and could be an effective model to use to train carers of mentally disabled people. This model also allows for staff involvement according to level of comfort, previous knowledge and counseling skills. Community awareness Rogow (1998) discusses the impact of different forms of abuse in two case studies and expresses the need for comprehensive preventative or pro-active intervention strategies. The author discusses the release of an education campaign that consists of a video, handbook, workshop series and public service announcements for broadcast media that is aimed as a preventative to educate people involved with disabled youth. These publications are not specifically addressing prevention of sexual abuse in mentally disabled persons although, these forms of media could be used to help foster community awareness of this subject. The effectiveness of these media releases has not yet been evaluated and requires research. The video and handbook is being supported by government and private agencies and made in co-operation with parents and organizations advocating for the rights of people with disabilities. Advocacy Leicester Cooke (2002) expressed a need for further advocacy to those individuals to whom the giving of informed consent is difficult (individuals who are most likely to be among those labeled as having ‘severe learning disabilities’). These researchers also suggest that advocates, in representing other people, must attempt to work out what the learning disabled person would choose and not necessarily what they would choose. Advocates needs to have high levels of empathy and the ability to know when and how to set their own beliefs and values aside. Assessing the ability to use advocacy to reduce the risk of sexual abuse in learning disabled persons is yet to be researched. Recommendations for social work practice at local level There are several great projects currently in place that foster the empowerment of the learning disabled adult to help them protect themselves and also to be able to make their own choices about sexual relationships. For example, The Disability Pride Project explores avenues that promote safety and support by promoting awareness within the community and developing healthy sexuality workshops for people with disabilities.10 This group teaches community specific advocacy and self-advocacy skills, organizes workshops for personal attendants and institutions about sexuality in the lives of people with disabilities and creates opportunities for young women with disabilities to be mentored by older women with disabilities.10 These educational sessions could be implemented by Social Workers, carers and other educators internationally to foster empowerment in the learning disabled adult to help prevent abuse and instill confidence and responsibility in both the disabled adult and the caregivers. In this review I have critiqued papers that have researched the effectiveness of education of both the carer / teacher and the learning disabled adult and it is evident that there is an extreme lack of research in this area and there is a need for more statistically significant, large numbered studies that investigate the effectiveness of intervention strategies. Conclusion The studies on interventions used to prevent sexual abuse in those with a learning disability are limited. There is some suggestion from the research that advocacy and changes to policy will help to encourage greater understanding of learning disabled people in the community. Greater awareness can foster independence and boost self-esteem which may then lower the risk of sexual abuse in this minority group. Some of the research papers presented in this review have shown that intervention strategies such as improving communication skills in the learning disabled and education of both staff and carer may be beneficial. The implementation of behavioral strategies including role-plays may help the intellectually disabled person gain an increase in confidence, assertiveness and develop a strategic plan if placed in danger of a sexual predator. These training programmes could be introduced by the social worker or some other authority figure apart from the actual care-giver as there have be en cases where the carer is actually the perpetrator of the abuse. More studies of greater numbers using both an experimental and control group are necessary to determine whether these intervention strategies will be successful at significantly reducing the risk of sexual abuse in the learning disabled adult. Although, an increase in confidence and assertiveness in these people would also be a great benefit so even if the studies are unable to show significant risk reduction of sexual abuse the training could positively influence other aspects of their lives. References Abuse of Children with Disabilities. NCFV. Public Health Agency of Canada. www.phac-aspc.gc.ca http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/sped/projects/ose/categories/ld.html#defin Brown, H. 2004. A Rights-based Approach to Abuse of Women with Learning Disabilities. Tigard Learning Disability Review. Volt 9, Is 4, pp41-44. Murphy, GH and O’Callaghan, A.2004. Capacity of adults with intellectual disabilities to consent to sexual relationships. Psychological Medicine, Volt 34, Is 7, pp 1347 Brown, H and Turk, V. 1992. Defining sexual abuse as it affects adults with learning disabilities. Mental Handicap Volt 20, pp 33-55. McCarthy, M. 1993. Sexual experiences of women with learning disabilities in long stay hospitals. Sexuality and disability Volt 11, pp 277-286. McCarthy, M and Thompson, D.1996. Sexual abuse by design: an examination of the issues in learning disabilities services. Disability and Society. Volt 2, pp 205-224. Subset, D. 1994. Violence

Individual Freedom vs. Majority Rule Essay -- Politics Political Scien

Individual Freedom vs. Majority Rule Freedom is one of the most central and certainly most emotive issues in political philosophy. It has been discussed since the times of ancient Greece, and is still as controversial and divisive a topic as ever. This question deals with two separate questions concerning freedom: Firstly, why we consider freedom necessary, and secondly, what exactly is meant by freedom. Clearly, the answer to the second part will greatly affect the answer to the first, but it shall be seen that it is a very challenging task to arrive at a definition of freedom. It is possible, however, to make this job easier by not strictly defining freedom, and using an examination into the desirability of freedom to help form this definition. This will be done below. One of the first issues to be resolved is the relationship between 'freedom' and 'liberty'. There has been several theses proposing a distinction between these two concepts. Theorists such as Belaief and Pitkin claim that liberty is a political term, while freedom is metaphysical. This distinction, however, is a false one. The only difference between these two terms is linguistic convenience. To illustrate, in the example above, liberty could be described as 'political freedom'. This shows the error in the apparent distinction. The two terms are synonymous, and will be used interchangeably in the remainder of this essay. We use the terms 'freedom' and 'liberty' in everyday language without giving much thought to a detailed description of the concept to which these terms refer. It is possible, to a certain degree, to examine why we see freedom as morally good, also without completely defining it. The investigation into a definition of freedom wi... ...as a whole. In answering this final question raised, the conclusion to the essay emerges. We have seen how difficult it is to simply define liberty as a single conception, but have discovered many properties that a statement of freedom must posses. In the question between the conflicts of freedom, where two persons individual freedoms create a zero-sum game, the idea of social freedom emerges, and the idea that it is possible for there to be restrictions on an individual's freedom that are morally desirable. To best, and most simply explain in what sense we want people to be free, a balance must be found between the extent to which society may restrict an individual's freedom, and vice versa. As can be seen by observing politics throughout the ages, it is finding this balance that has proven to be the most challenging aspect of the ongoing question of freedom. Individual Freedom vs. Majority Rule Essay -- Politics Political Scien Individual Freedom vs. Majority Rule Freedom is one of the most central and certainly most emotive issues in political philosophy. It has been discussed since the times of ancient Greece, and is still as controversial and divisive a topic as ever. This question deals with two separate questions concerning freedom: Firstly, why we consider freedom necessary, and secondly, what exactly is meant by freedom. Clearly, the answer to the second part will greatly affect the answer to the first, but it shall be seen that it is a very challenging task to arrive at a definition of freedom. It is possible, however, to make this job easier by not strictly defining freedom, and using an examination into the desirability of freedom to help form this definition. This will be done below. One of the first issues to be resolved is the relationship between 'freedom' and 'liberty'. There has been several theses proposing a distinction between these two concepts. Theorists such as Belaief and Pitkin claim that liberty is a political term, while freedom is metaphysical. This distinction, however, is a false one. The only difference between these two terms is linguistic convenience. To illustrate, in the example above, liberty could be described as 'political freedom'. This shows the error in the apparent distinction. The two terms are synonymous, and will be used interchangeably in the remainder of this essay. We use the terms 'freedom' and 'liberty' in everyday language without giving much thought to a detailed description of the concept to which these terms refer. It is possible, to a certain degree, to examine why we see freedom as morally good, also without completely defining it. The investigation into a definition of freedom wi... ...as a whole. In answering this final question raised, the conclusion to the essay emerges. We have seen how difficult it is to simply define liberty as a single conception, but have discovered many properties that a statement of freedom must posses. In the question between the conflicts of freedom, where two persons individual freedoms create a zero-sum game, the idea of social freedom emerges, and the idea that it is possible for there to be restrictions on an individual's freedom that are morally desirable. To best, and most simply explain in what sense we want people to be free, a balance must be found between the extent to which society may restrict an individual's freedom, and vice versa. As can be seen by observing politics throughout the ages, it is finding this balance that has proven to be the most challenging aspect of the ongoing question of freedom.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Essay

1)Explain the motivation problem with the hourly-paid employees in this organization in terms of the content models of motivation. What are the other things that the human resources manager is referring to in speaking of things besides money, conditions, and fringe benefits that are needed to motivate employees? The first theory that is briefly presented is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. After which, this is linked to the needs of Tom, Rajina, and Harry. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Perhaps, the most famous theory of satisfaction and motivation was developed by Abraham Maslow (1954 in Loop, 1994). Maslow believed that employees would be satisfied with their jobs at any given point in time if certain needs were met. Maslow believed that there are five major types of needs and these needs are hierarchical – that is, lower level needs must be satisfied before an employee will be concerned with the next level of needs. Basic biological needs. Maslow thought that an individual first seeks to satisfy basic biological needs for food, air, water, and shelter. An individual who does not have a job, is homeless, and is on the verge of starvation will be satisfied with any job as long as it provides for these basic needs. When asked how well they enjoy their job, people at this level might reply, â€Å"I can’t complain, it pays the bills. † Safety needs. After the basic biological needs have been met, a job that merely provides food and shelter will no longer be satisfying. Employees then become concerned about meeting their safety needs. That is, they may work in an unsafe coal mine to earn money to ensure their family’s survival, but once their family has food and shelter, they will remain satisfied with their jobs only if their workplace is safe. Safety needs have been explained to include psychological as well as physical safety. Psychological safety – often referred to as job security – can certainly affect job satisfaction. For example, public sector employees often list job security as a main benefit to their jobs – a benefit so strong that they will stay in lower paying public sector jobs rather than take higher paying, yet less secure, jobs in the private sector. Social needs. Once these first two need levels have been met, employees will remain satisfied with their jobs only when their social needs have been met. Social needs involve working with others, developing friendships, and feeling needed. Organizations attempt to satisfy their employees’ social needs in a variety of ways. Company cafeterias provide workers the place and opportunity to socialize and meet other employees, company picnics allow families to meet one another, and company sports programs such as bowling teams and softball games provide opportunities for employees to play together in a neutral environment. Ego needs. When social needs have been satisfied, employees concentrate next on meeting their ego needs. These are needs for recognition and success, and an organization can help to satisfy them through praise, salary increases, and publicity. Ego needs can be satisfied in many ways. For example, many organizations use furniture to help satisfy ego needs. The higher the employee’s position, the better his office furniture. Self-actualization needs. Even when employees have friends, have earned awards, and are making a relatively high salary, they may not be completely satisfied with their jobs because their self-actualization needs may have not been satisfied yet. These needs are the fifth and final level of Maslow’s needs hierarchy. Self-actualization may be best defined by the US Army’s recruiting slogan, â€Å"be the best that you can be. † An employee striving for self-actualization wants to reach her potential in every task. Thus, employees who have worked within the same machine for 20 years may become dissatisfied with their jobs. They have accomplished all that they can with that particular machine and now search for a new challenge. If none is available, they may become dissatisfied (Knoop, 1994). In the case study, it has been pointed out that Tom does not seem to be simply motivated by money alone, suggesting that he has probably gone beyond the basic biological needs. There should be effort on the part of his supervisor to look for esteem or self-actualization needs, perhaps. One option is for his job to be enriched. This is also true in the case of Rajina who does have loyalty to the company, but is not too assertive. She may be asked to engage in activities that will increase her self-esteem. Finally, Tom is easily motivated by monetary rewards, and may be rewarded and motivated by these. Still another theory is the two factor theory of Herzberg. Two-factor Theory Still another needs theory, which reduces the number of needs to two, was developed by Herzberg. He believed that job-related factors can de divided into two categories, motivators and hygiene factors – thus the name two-factor theory. Hygiene factors are those job-related elements that results from but do not involve the job itself. For example, pay and benefits are consequences of work but do not involve the work itself. Similarly, making new friends may result from going to work, but it is also not directly involved with the tasks and duties of the job. Motivators are job elements that do concern actual tasks and duties. Examples of motivators would be the level of job responsibility, the amount of job control, and the interest that the work holds for the employee. Herzberg believed that hygiene factors are necessary but not sufficient for job satisfaction and motivation. That is, if a hygiene factors is not present at an adequate level (e. g. the pay is too low), the employee will be dissatisfied. But if all hygiene factors are represented adequately, the employee’s level of satisfaction will only be neutral. Only the presence of both motivators and hygiene factors can bring job satisfaction and motivation. Herzberg’s theory is one of those theories that makes sense but has not received strong support from research. In general, researchers have criticized the theory because of the methods used to develop the two factors as well as the fact that few research studies have replicated the findings obtained by Herzberg and his colleagues (Knoop, 1994). McClelland’s Needs Theory The final needs theory was developed by McClelland (1961 in Knoop, 1994) and suggests that differences between individuals stem from the relationship between a job and each employee’s level of job satisfaction or motivation. McClelland believed that employees differ in their needs for achievement, affiliation, and power. Employees who have a strong need for achievement desire jobs that are challenging and over which they have some control, whereas employees who have minimal achievement needs are more satisfied when jobs involve little challenge and have high probability of success. In contrast, employees who have a strong need for affiliation prefer working with and helping other people. These types of employees are found more often in people-oriented service jobs than in management or administration (Smither & Lindgren, 1978). Finally, employees who have a strong need for power have a desire to influence others rather than simply be successful. Research has shown that employees who have a strong need for power and achievement make the best managers (Stahl, 1983) and that employees who are motivated most by their affiliation needs will probably make the worst managers. It is apparent from both theories that Tom, Rajina and Harry may have need for hygiene factors to increase their productivity. This means that management must offer motivators to retain them or to motivate them to work more. 2)Building on the response to Question 1, explain the motivation of the hourly-paid employees in this company in terms of the process models of motivation. Based on the information provided by the confidential interviews, what would you guess are some of the expectancies, valences, and inequities of the hourly-paid employees of this company? How do these compare to those of Pat (the Director of Manufacturing and Operations)? Based on Vroom’s expectancy theory, Tom, Rajina and Harry have varying valences, expectancies and instrumentality. For example, in the case of Tom, values inspiration and motivation – which are intangibles. However, he is not motivated because he does not receive this from the company. He also does not believe that exerting more effort at work would allow him to receive such inspiration. In the case of Rajina, she has a high need for esteem, which she does not experience because she does not know to advertise her efforts to colleagues. Recognition is what may be given to her to compensate for her efforts and loyalty. There is no direct link from her perspective, of exerting more effort at work, and receiving such recognition as reward. Finally, Tom puts great premium on monetary rewards and benefits. However, based on the perceptions of hourly paid employees in general, there is no significant difference between those who work hard and those who contribute little. A compensation and bonus scheme reflective of relative contribution must be established to motivate employees like him. Based on these information, how can management leverage on the motivation of employees to enable them to attain higher productivity? Individual differences theory postulates that some variability in job satisfaction is due to an individual’s personal tendency across situations to enjoy what she does. Thus, certain types of people will generally be satisfied and motivated regardless of the type of job they hold (Weaver, 1978). The idea also makes intuitive sense. We all know that people who constantly complain and whine about every job they have, and we also know people who are motivated and enthusiastic about every job or task. First, we should be aware of the fact that there are several factors that affect our hourly paid employees’ satisfaction. Apart from money and fringe benefits that motivate employees like Harry, personality is another factor to consider. Whether the consistency in job satisfaction is due to genetic or environmental factors, there appears to be a series of personality variables that are related to job satisfaction. That is, certain types of personalities are associated with the tendency to be satisfied or dissatisfied with one’s job. Judge et al. (1998) have hypothesized that these personality variables are related and involve people’s outlook on life (affectivity), view of their self-worth (self-esteem), ability to master their environment (self-efficacy), and ability to control their environment (external vs. internal locus of control). People prone to be satisfied with their jobs have high self-esteem, high self-efficacy, high positive affectivity, and an internal locus of control. Research supporting this view has come from Judge et al. 1998), who found a significant correlation between a combination of these four variables and job satisfaction, and from Garske (1990), who found that employees with high self-esteem are more satisfied with their jobs than are employees low in self-esteem. Results consistent with the core evaluation theory were reported by Dubin and Champoux (1977), who found that some people are happier in their jobs than people without this focus. Moreover, the degree to which they are satisfied with their lives is also another determinant of their motivation on the job. Judge et al. 1998), Judge and Watanabe (1993), and Tait et al. (1989) have theorized not only that job satisfaction is consistent across time but that the extent to which a person is satisfied with all aspects of her life (e. g. marriage, friends, job, family, geographic location) is as well. Furthermore, people who are satisfied with their jobs tend to be satisfied with life. These researchers found support for their theory, as their data indicate that job satisfaction is significantly correlated with life satisfaction. Thus, people happy in life tend to be happy in their jobs and vice versa. Individual differences theories postulate that some employees are more predisposed to being motivated than others. Such things as genetics and affectivity are involved in the extent to which some people tend to always be satisfied with their jobs and others always dissatisfied. However, rather than genetics and affectivity, self-esteem, need for achievement, and intrinsic motivation tendency are the individual differences most related to work motivation. To be able to address hourly employees’ intangible needs, there must be much effort on management’s part to increase employees’ self-esteem. These may not be too applicable for Harry who seems to be more motivated by basic needs, i. e. money and fringe benefits. There are various ways of carrying this out, as follows: Employees who can attend workshops or sensitivity groups in which they are given insights into their strengths. It is thought that these insights raise self-esteem by showing the employee that he has several strengths and is a good person. Management also ought to provide hourly paid employees with experience on success. With this approach, an employee is given a task so easy that he will almost certainly succeed. It is thought that this success increases self-esteem, which should increase performance, then further increase self-esteem, then further increase performance, and so on. This method is based loosely on the principle of self-fulfilling prophecy, which states that an individual will perform as well or as poorly as he expects to perform. In other words, if he believes he is intelligent, he should do well on tests. If he believes he is dumb, he should do poorly. So if an employee believes he will always fail, the only way to break the vicious cycle is to ensure that he performs well on a task (Knoop, 1994). Particularly in the case of Tom, management has to think of ways to motivate him to achieve. Employees who have a strong need for achievement desire and are motivated by jobs that are challenging and over which they have some control, whereas employees who have minimal achievement needs are more satisfied when their work involves little challenge. Employees who have a high need for achievement ate not risk takers and tend to set goals that are challenging enough to be interesting but low enough to be attainable. Employees with a high need for achievement need recognition and want their achievements to be noticed. To increase motivation, goal setting should be used. This is particularly applicable in Tom’s and Rajina’s case who do not seem to perform well without adequate supervision. With goal setting, each employee is given a goal, which might be a particular quality level, a certain quantity of output, or a combination of the two. For goal setting to be most successful, the goals themselves should possess certain qualities. First, they should be concrete and specific. Setting more specific subgoals can also improve performance (Klawsky, 1990). Second, a properly set goal is high but reasonable (Locke & Latham, 1990). To increase the effectiveness of goal setting, feedback should be provided to the employee on his progress in reaching his goal (Locke & Latham, 1990). Feedback can include verbally telling an employee how he is doing, placing a chart on a wall, or displaying a certain color of light when the employee’s work pace will result in goal attainment and a different color of light when the pace is too slow to reach the goal. Feedback increases performance best when it is positive and informational rather than negative and controlling. Another set of theories hypothesizes that workers are motivated when they are rewarded for their behavior. As a result, organizations offer incentives for a wide variety of employee behaviors, including working overtime or on weekends, making suggestions, referring applicants, staying with the company (length of service awards), coming to work (attendance bonuses), not getting into accidents, and performing at a high level (Henderson, 1997).

How Do Stevenson And Golding Reveal The Characters Of Edward Hyde And Roger In their Texts? Essay

In Golding’s ‘Lord of The Flies’ and Stevenson’s ‘Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde’ there are main characters of evil, Hyde and Roger. Their characters are revealed skilfully in the texts by the authors. Their characters are uncovered though various characteristics such as their names, where they live, their description and their actions and crimes. ‘Hyde’ from ‘Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde’ has an extraordinary name; it is a metaphor of ‘Hide’, this is used because after he has committed his crimes he is very sly and runs from the police back to his derelict house and turns back to Jekyll for example, when Hyde slayed Carew. Roger’s name means spear; this could imply that he has more to him than first thought, for example, a spear is used in the hunt for killing, Roger enjoys the hunt of the sow and has merciless pleasure in the killing. The places Roger and Hyde live, illustrate certain things about them, Hyde for example lives in a house that could be conveyed as anything but homely; it is described as ‘a certain sinister block of building thrust forward in its gable on the street’, this suggests something different about Hyde, perhaps that he too is distinctive from the crowd. Descriptive imagery of him shows ‘something wrong’ about him, his house is used as a metaphor for him, he and his house share distinct features of deformity and neglect ‘in every feature bore the marks of prolonged and sordid negligence’ and him a ‘strong feeling of deformity’. Hyde’s outward appearance is also compared to that of an animal, possibly suggesting that he is not entirely human. Roger’s settlement is also used as an interpretation of Roger, he stays at first with the whole group on the beach, but throughout the novel as the boys break up, he follows Jack and moves up to ‘Castle Rock’, he uses Castle rock as a type of fort, unlike Hyde the place where Rodger stays is the place he commits his worst crime, the murder of Piggy. Roger’s first examples of aggressiveness could at first be conveyed as horrible childish pranks or games, when he starts off by throwing stones at the ‘littluns’, he first aims to miss because he is still held by the thought of civilisation, its rules and the punishment he would receive at home. As the thought of civilisation dies away and Roger realises that his immoral behaviour does not need to be suppressed, as there is no one on the island that can enforce punishment. Roger and Maurice antagonize the ‘littluns’ by walking over and destroying their Sandcastles, ‘led the way through the sandcastles, kicking them over, burying the flowers, scattering the chosen rocks’. By chapter 10 Roger’s ‘childish games’ are so savage and evil, that his cruel instincts kill Piggy, ‘with a sense of delirious abandonment, leaned all of his weight on the lever†¦.The rock struck Piggy a glancing blow from the chin to the knee’. Hyde is exposed to the reader as evil from the very first encounter with him in the book. He tramples over an innocent young girl and after does not seem to show any remorse for his actions. Although Hyde represents evil throughout the book, his wickedness increases somewhat to cause death, he kills ‘Sir Danvers Carew’; he and Sir Danvers are in midst of a conversation when Hyde appears to dislike something that is said, he then flies into a rage and clubs Carew to death. Throughout the novel Roger is progressively revealed as more and more evil, he begins to intentionally hurt the other boys. Roger represents pure evil; he is a sadist and causes pain and hurt for fun. Roger has no mercy; he gets sadistic pleasure by inflicting pain, for example the torture of the pig and of the other boys on the island. Hyde also represents pure evil; his trampling of the girl and the killing of ‘Sir Danvers Carew’ is for no apparent reason, Hyde kills because ‘Carew’ is a wholly good character, because of this Hyde feels the need to harm him. The way Stevenson and Golding reveal the characters of Hyde and Roger in the texts, is very important in establishing what the characters are truly like. Hyde represents evil from the moment he is presented to the reader, unlike Roger who begins in the novel a very introverted boy, he gradually discovers a malevolent side of himself; one that was not able to surface in a civilised world with all of its restraint and punishments.

Free sample - The major healthcare problem in the USA. translation missing

The major healthcare problem in the USA. The major healthcare problem in the USAOver the years, there has been an increase in the number of uninsured people in the US. Most of these people are those that are aged. Two to three centuries back, most of the people that were dying were the young people which meant that there were very few aging people to worry about. However, due to medical, surgical and other advances made in the field of medicine and related fields, the numbers of aging people in the carry has increased tremendously. If many people are uninsured and they live longer, the burden of the services that will be required for these aged people will be very great on the government. The government currently spends a lot of funds in providing these services to the old people.   Due to this, there is a need to develop proper ways to insure most people and take care of the welfare of the old and aging people in the society. I believe the following three ways can be very useful in achieving this. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Aging prevention The government should invest more on projects that are meant to reduce or completely prevent the aging process. This will make it possible for more people to continue working despite their age and hence an increase in the number of people insured. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Disease prevention and self-care The government should develop proper methods to ensure that the citizens are well informed about how to prevent the normal and avoidable diseases. The government should also sensitize people on the importance of self-care. These two will ensure that most people fall ill less often hence reduction in the cost of health services needed. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Improve services for aging people The government should also make sure that the healthcare centers have the required facilities and expertise to handle the aging people and the common problems and diseases related to aging. Conclusion If the above solutions are followed and properly implemented, then they will help in the reduction of this big problem in the healthcare sector of the country.

Evernotes Beat Buhlmann How I became the CEO of my own life

Evernotes Beat Buhlmann How I became the CEO of my own life Evernote's Beat Buhlmann: "How I became the CEO of my own life" Beat Buhlmann is the General Manager of Evernote EMEA. With ten years of life management coaching under his belt, he decided to write a book about personal development planning and how it can help people manage their work goals and personal lives simultaneously. His book, Become the CEO of Your Own Life, was published earlier this year, an achievement that Beat credits in part to two time-saving friends to authors: Evernote and Reedsy. Read on to learn how these two tools came into play during the writing process, and to learn more about Beat's strategies for taking control of personal and career development.How did you get started on writing your new book, Become the CEO of Your Own Life?Working so intensively in the field of life management coaching was not my plan when I set out to start my career after graduation. As I began working, I quickly realized the importance of distinguishing between people management and business management. I also realized the importance of allowing an d encouraging individuals to accomplish goals not only professionally, but also in their personal lives - both parts are important if you want to create an environment of trust in the workplace.However, in today’s rapidly changing and hectic workplace laden with distractions and constant overload, managing one’s own life can be a challenge. To this end, I created a personal development plan (PDP) called the Swiss PDP Approach ®. For several years, I coached companies such as Dell, Google, and Evernote implement the Swiss PDP Approach ® to support their teams’ efforts to combine and align private and business life in an effective and meaningful manner. In today’s workplace laden with constant overload, managing one’s life can be a challenge. The Swiss PDP Approach ® is a simple approach but it works well, and I was getting increasingly more requests from Google managers around the world to hold people development training sessions for their teams. However, there came a point when I could no longer keep up with the demand - I still had a full-time job. I ended up having to to say â€Å"no, sorry† to many people, which was a difficult task, as turning down meaningful opportunities went against my inner beliefs. The first person whose request I declined was Matt Brittin, EMEA President at Google. It was Matt who encouraged me to write a book to share and spread my Swiss PDP Approach ®. So I did.What is the Swiss PDP Approach ® and how can it be applied to writers?One of the key elements of the Swiss PDP Approach ® is its non-silo approach. Far too often, people raise a wall between their private life and their work life (creating two silos). However, that does not make sense - what happens in your private l ife has an impact on your work life and vice versa. Therefore, I suggest a holistic, integrated view, as you can see in the following diagram: One of the main parts of the Swiss PDP Approach ® is about getting to know yourself, and I believe this is a vital step for any author looking to write a book, whether fiction or nonfiction. The following image shows you the three steps of the Swiss PDP Approach ®, the objective of each step, and who should support you: How did writing your book in Evernote affect your writing process?How do you write a book nowadays? How do you manage the vast amount of resources, literature, ideas, chapters, etc.? I can truly see the difference in the writing process between my first book, published 12 years ago, and my current one: Evernote. Evernote has been a game changer for me - it’s saved me so much time. Every idea, article, book, video, and audio recording is kept in Evernote and synchronized across all my devices. Having everything in one place allowed me to write whenever and wherever I wanted, whether it be commuting on the train, waiting at the airport, or during a flight.As the biggest challenge I faced while writing was finding the time, Evernote helped me jump a huge hurdle. I have a full-time job, I have a family, and I am a part-time EMBA professor at various universities. Finding the time to write was not easy, but thanks to Evernote, I could write during every opportunity I had: no matte r where or when, my book draft was always with me. My  biggest writing challenge was finding time. Evernote let  me write whenever/wherever I wanted. How did using Reedsy impact your book?When I was contacted by Reedsy  about a potential partnership, I first wanted to get to know the product better. As I was in the process of writing my second book, I started by using the Reedsy Book Editor to finish writing my manuscript. I took a liking to its  simple user interface and its marketplace for finding professional editors and designers.As my book is a practitioner’s book, I needed editors who could not only check for grammar and spelling errors, but also make sure that the book was clear and easy to understand. Being a non-native English speaker, it was important for me to not work with an editor who would simply rewrite everything. Yes, a native English speaker might formulate a sentence differently than me, but so what?  I wanted the book to be authentic and to sound like me. I stand for 100% quality and it is important to me that I write the books myself. Finding editors who ensured quality while maintaining my voice as an author was a great experience. I may be a non-native English speaker, but I still wanted the book to sound like me. I believe that everyone should do a PDP from time to time. If not, you run the risk of always going with the flow and being influenced or distracted by what is currently â€Å"cool.† Becoming the CEO of your own life requires you to invest time, and to engage in deep thinking and self-reflection. Try to enjoy the process, and remember that when it comes to your personal development, the results are in your hands! Becoming the CEO of your own life requires time,  deep thinking and self-reflection.

Sustainable Insulation for Winter Wear

Sustainable Insulation for Winter Wear When selecting winter wear, our concerns usually are about how warm a piece of garment is, how expensive it is, and let’s face it, whether it is fashionable. Another factor should be part of our decision-making: how green is the insulation? There are many types of insulation materials, each with a different environmental footprint. There is no single material which can clearly be deemed most environmentally friendly, but here is some information about insulation material sustainability which will hopefully help you make the right decision for you. Sustainable and Ethical Down? Insulation down is made from the small fluffy feathers found underneath a bird’s quilled feathers. Down’s role is one of, no surprise, insulation. Down is particularly sought after as it has a very advantageous warmth to weight ratio and it maintains its loft, trapping warm air close to the body even after years of use. Down is usually obtained from the breast of geese and ducks after they have been slaughtered for food. However, there is evidence of some eastern European and Asian farms harvesting breast down feathers directly from live ducks, which then regrow the feathers. This inhumane method is painful to the bird, and many garment companies are trying to distance themselves from those live-plucking practices. Some large outdoor clothing manufacturers have established sustainable sourcing practices to ensure their down is produced ethically. For example, outdoor clothing giant The North Face is expecting that by the end of 2016 all of the down it uses will be obtained ethically through their in-house Responsible Down Standard certification. Outdoor clothing manufacturer Patagonia has a similar program called Traceable Down which sources down from farms where the waterfowl are not live-plucked. Patagonia also offers jackets and vests made with recycled down obtained from used comforters and pillows. The feathers are sorted, washed, and dried at high temperature before it is sewn into new products. Goose and duck down is a product with great insulation properties, but the very lightest and warmest down is grown by a sea duck found in the frigid waters of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans: the common eider. Eider down is obtained from wild birds, but not the usually way by plucking it directly from the duck. The eiders use their own down to line their nest, and trained harvesters visit nesting colonies where they pick up a portion of the down feathers found in each nest. This sustainable practice has no negative effects on the eiders’ nesting success, but it yields only about 44 grams of down on average per nest, and much less once it’s sorted and cleaned. Eider down is of course very expensive and is used mostly in high-priced comforters and luxury clothes. Wool Wool is a product with excellent insulation qualities, as it remains warm when wet. It has been used for centuries, and while its popularity declined after the development of synthetic products, wool is making a comeback in outdoor apparel and fashion wear. Merino wool in particular is sought after for its softness and wicking properties. A sustainability certification program, named ZQ, exists for wool from New Zealand Merino sheep. By definition wool is a renewable resource, but in reality the sustainability of wool is as good as the farming practices used to raise the sheep. Pastured sheep efficiently convert energy from grass with relatively little greenhouse gas emissions as compared to cattle. In more arid regions, overgrazed rangeland is often an unfortunate sight. Farmers markets can present a good opportunity to get to know sheep farmers and their practices. The markets are also a good place to meet farmers who raise alpaca, a relative of the llama known for its high quality wool. A Synthetic Solution? While synthetic insulation is not quite as warm as down, it has the significant advantage of not holding water and not losing its insulation value when wet. Unfortunately, synthetic insulation is made from oil byproducts in a process releasing significant greenhouse gases. To get around that, the main synthetic insulation makers offer versions of their products made, partly or wholly, of recycled materials. For example, PrimaLoft and Thinsulate offer recycled alternatives, and Patagonia produces fleece fabric spun from PET plastic (#1) recycled from soda bottles. Â   Unfortunately there is increasing evidence that polyester, which makes up most of the fibers used in synthetic insulation, has a water pollution problem. Every time a polyester garment is washed, tiny fibers get detached and washed down the drain. The fibers will not decompose the way cotton or wool would. Instead, polyester fibers are being found in bodies of water all over the world. There, the fibers contribute to the global microplastics pollution problem: persistent organic pollutants stick to the fibers’ surface, and aquatic microorganisms then suffer from ingesting them. Milkweed Yes, milkweed! Asclepias has long been known for its insulation properties, and has been used as a hypoallergenic pillow fill. Figuring out how to use it for clothing insulation has proven elusive until recently when a Canadian company developed a lightweight, effective-when-wet, very warm woven fabric made from milkweed. For now, it comes in limited applications and at a steep price, but as a bonus the commercially grown plant is only harvested after it has served as food for the monarch butterfly larvae. Make It Last! The most environmentally sustainable insulated garment is the one you don’t buy, so make the clothes you own last a long time. Knowing how to make basic repairs, like replacing a zipper or mending a tear, can stretch the functional life of a jacket for several more years. Purchasing quality clothing well-constructed by a reputable manufacturer in the first place pays off in the end, as it will likely last much longer than discount brands or cheap knock-off products.

Business plan for a startup business Assignment

Business plan for a startup business - Assignment Example tomized computers and repair service in the next three years of operation by offering customers the latitude to customize the specification and performance of their computers at a low cost with an after sales support of highly competent technicians. Computer Savers is a computer assembly and repair business intended to cater to small business owners as well as home PC users. It is engage in the selling of computer parts and software and is also engaged in the customization, upgrade, repair, virus removal and hard disk data recovery of computers. The company intends to create a niche in the computer retail and service industry by providing customized computers as well as providing repair service at a significantly lower cost than competition. Computer Savers offers customized computers and repair service to its customers. To enable Computer Savers to offer customized computers to its customers, it will sell computer parts for ease, convenience and easy availability of the necessary hardware to assemble a computer. It will also sell licensed softwares to make the assembled computers usable after leaving the outlet. The repair service component of Computer Savers will complement the computer customization business by offering repair service after the computer’s warranty coverage has elapsed. It will work in synergy with the computer customization business as the skills needed in the repair component of the business can also be used in the assembly of computers. Computer Savers will make a niche in the computer retail and service industry by offering computer products and services that is significantly lower than the competition. It will cater to the specific segment of a market where end users prefer to customize the specification of their computers. Computer Savers will also offer an after sales support through its repair business component. Combining these elements of offering customized computers at a lower price with an after sales support will make

Three Perspectives of Viewing Crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Three Perspectives of Viewing Crime - Essay Example Traditional thinking also inhibits change in the criminal justice. Command structures must also get the priority for notable change to occur. Having talks with the community members are also, ways that the criminal justice practitioners seek to enhance their participation in the policymaking. These theories of crime have their own views as to the course of people engaging in criminal activities within a society. Personal definition of crime of criminologists defines their ultimate choice of theory preference. The three perspectives of viewing crime are the consensus view of crime, the Interactionist view of crime and the conflict view crime respectively (Siegel, 2006). According to the consensus view of crime, crimes are simply repugnant behaviors of elements linked directly or indirectly to the society. With regard to this view of crime, the substantive criminal laws serving as the written rule define crime related to punishments. This means that if one goes contrary to the written rules deserves punishment. The best example of this is when curfews come from criminologists and when one does contrary to the curfew, punishment becomes the order of the day. Substantive criminal law ultimately depicts the values, opinions and beliefs of the society. The consensus word in the consensus view of crime provides an implication that there is a general agreement among a large portion of society about the unacceptable behaviors that the society should consider as crimes. There have been many attempts in the recent past of creating thorough, concise and encompassing consent crime definition. Donald Cressey, Edwin Sutherland and a few other criminologists support the standpoint of conjoining criminality laws with crime. According to this view, crime encompasses morality, rules and beliefs. Sutherland and Cressey agree that criminal law application exists uniformly to all social classes depending on the rules to refer. This means that everybody has beliefs and hopes just as the author does in fair and legal system where all types of people regardless of the social class. The best example or illustration for consensus view of crime is that law prohibiting theft, robbery and burglary directly points towards controlling poor, the lower class, needy individuals and the disabled. At the same time laws focused on corporate price fixing, embezzlement and insider trading prevention are in existence for the purposes of controlling the upper class, wealthy and rich in the society. In consensus view of crime, criminal and illegal behavior has a close relationship with social harm meaning that there is need to stop, control and manage every bad behavior causing harm or disturbance to other people. Social harm is what progresses to social crimes and sets deviant and strange behaviors that are shocking and seem immoral but may not necessarily be criminal. In many instances, the religious people condemn such behaviors though they do not consider them crimes because t he general community consensus is that they cause no harm not unless they involve children in any way. There is much controversy attached to the consensus vie

Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 26

Journal - Essay Example s not just limited to developed countries who have traditionally been more favorable towards women in careers; typically more male-centric areas of the world like India and China are also showing massive improvements in the way that women are treated in the workplace and their access to jobs and education. However, it must be noted that there are still areas for improvement, despite the fact that the arena has changed so much for the better. Women still do not make as much as men overall (men make $23.4 trillion compared to a female $10.5 trillion) which means that their power and access to some things may be limited. However, it is noted by Foroohar et al (2009) that this may be because it will take a while for the elder women who make less money to retire and allow younger women with higher standards of education and economic prospects to take their place. This is again, proof that women are in a much stronger economic position than they have been previously and that this effect will continue to be seen across the globe. There is also evidence that economic conditions, whilst not necessarily excellent for women in the developing world, will continue to improve as households get more access to technology (like television) and see other countries attitudes towards female economic

Mommy Track Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mommy Track - Essay Example Compliance with laws such as these entails additional costs to businesses. At first impression, it would seem that corporate policy should be that employment of women is better avoided than encouraged. However, a study by Cohen & Blanchi (1999) shows a steadily increasing trend of women's labor force participation for the period 1971 to 1997. This leads to the conclusion that although it may cost more to employ women than men, there is relatively no negative impact on the profitability of businesses. Therefore, the higher costs of employing women will have no implications on corporate policy as long as the business benefits derived from women employees offset the costs. Schwartz definition of two types of working women as those who are career-primary and those who are career-and-family is quite accurate. It is therefore desirable for companies to distinguish the different types of career paths followed by female employees. According to Schwartz, career-primary women should be recognized early and accepted so that artificial barriers in their career path to the top may be cleared. In a similar way, career-and-family women should also be recognized and accepted and not be made to choose between career and family. Losing such women from the organization means losing a valuable resource and a competitive advantage. I 3. Do you think there already is such a thing as a mommy track Is the idea of a mommy track a good one Is it somehow discriminatory against women Against men I think there already is such a thing as a mommy track, especially in societies where the traditional roles of male as breadwinner and female as homemaker have been ingrained through centuries. The idea of a mommy track may actually be a good one. According to Quinn in a Newsweek article (2000), a rising proportion of women are choosing motherhood over career. Quinn says that this choice is a result of prosperity. When couples needed two incomes to survive, women had to find jobs. But when couples were able to manage with just one income, women can make the choice of staying at home. In this author's opinion, a mommy track is not discriminatory both for women and men. It is simply another alternative option to choose from. Quinn's article quotes a 32-year old mother of two who says that she does not feel a big need to work because she knows she can if she wants to. 4. Should special organizational arrangements be made for workers who wish to combine careers and child-raising Identify the steps that companies can take to accommodate parental needs more effectively. A company that specifically targets women workers must indeed, make special arrangements to address the needs of such workers, including child-raising concerns. Some steps that companies can take to accommodate parental needs more effectively are: Granting parental leave to increase the ability of families to balance the needs of the workplace and home. According to a study by Ruhm (2002), the first years of life is a critical period for a child and parents

Abacus Distribution plc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Abacus Distribution plc - Essay Example The Group has adopted a customer service policy with more personalised local service and a strong technical support. This ensures the company’s performance in providing quality products and support from a strongly motivated workforce. The company has an office in Asia with manufacturing operations extended in the Far East to supply European customers, quality products at competitive prices. In general, the objective of a company must be to create value for its shareholders. Value is represented by the market price of the company’s common stock, which in turn is a function of the firm’s investment, financing, and dividend decisions. The basic idea of managing finance in any business venture therefore is to acquire assets and invest in new products and services where expected return exceeds their cost, to finance with those instruments where there is particular advantage, tax or otherwise and to undertake a meaningful dividend policy for stockholders. (Ross et al.) These functions define the scope and role of financial management in any organisation. The financial management function thus concerns the acquisition, financing, and management of assets with the overall organisational goals in mind. In line with the above principles of financial management the company has taken the following actions in the financial discipline. During the year 2004 the company embarked on a major capital expenditure in upgrading the business system of the company scheduled to be completed in the year 2007. The company has adopted a policy of acquiring large properties on a freehold basis. In line with this policy the company has invested in the acquisition of subsidiaries to the extent of  £2.1 million, a net investment of  £1.1 million in plant, machinery, and equipments, and a small investment of  £0.1 million in land and building. There is an investment of  £50 million representing the acquisition of Deltron Electronics Group UK having subsidiaries in

Roanoke Island Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Roanoke Island - Research Paper Example The race for the newly discovered world, comprising of the modern day Americas, began in the later part of the 16th century. England had made numerous attempts to claim land across the Atlantic, long before it even won its conquest over Spain. For instance, in the year 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert laid claim over Newfoundland on behalf of the reigning Queen Elizabeth I. However, Sir Gilbert died before he could establish a colony. In the subsequent year, the Queen commissioned Sir Walter Raleigh to arrogate land in newly discovered North America. Sir Raleigh’s expedition was intended to ensure that England had a colony that would enable it to have a grip on the Americas. The foothold would also make it possible for England to exploit available resources, convert pagans to Christianity, claim territory and institute a base from which to strategically attack Spanish ships. However, as a result of poor associations with the indigenous populace, improper geographical timing of colony establishment and inefficient links with the parent country due to foreign conflicts, the settlers of this original English-American colony were destined to fail. The initiative of colonizing the North American coast was set in motion soon after Queen Elizabeth one gave an official charter to Sir Walter Raleigh to establish a colony in a suitable location. After acquiring formal approval from the Queen in 1584, Sir Raleigh created and funded a scouting expedition with the sole mandate of exploring the American coastline and finding a perfect spot to establish the proposed colony. The scout team, led by Captains Arthur Barlow and Phillip Amadas came back with a positive report of the location, that is, Roanoke Island; a land mass off the shore of contemporary North Carolina. The scouts described the Island with glowing terms, praising it for its fertility and pleasant nature. They also reported that Roanoke was occupied by friendly and loving people. Judging from the enthusiastic report, Raleigh and others decided that the Island’s sheltered and secure shores formed a perfect location to establish England’s maiden colony in this N ew World. In the year 1985, after receiving the Queen's financial support and blessing, the first boatload of colonists set sail for the North American coast (Clark n.pg). The initial 100 men, who went to Roanoke Island primarily comprised of soldiers. The men established a settlement on the northern side of Roanoke Island and immediately built a fort. Since they did not have sufficient supplies, these initial colonists exchanged trinkets and beads to the native populace for food and other basic necessities (Clark n.pg). As winter began and food increasingly became scarce, tension heightened between the locals and the English settlers. The expeditions also deteriorated the original kindness that the Native Americans felt toward the settlers. This is because the colonists regularly abducted tribal leaders with the intent of holding them in exchange for scarce supplies. The English settlers treated the locals with disrespect in spite of the fact that they relied on them for basic supp lies. After suffering such a difficult winter, the supply ships still did not arrive as expected in spring. By this time there was actual conflict between the locals and the settlers. Following the constant war with Native Americans, deprivation of food and becoming impatient waiting for the overdue supplies fleet, the colonists decided to travel back home. The overdue supply ships arrived just two weeks later and found the colony abandoned. The fleet left about 15 men to take care of the English settlement in readiness for the next group or recruits (Kupperman 12-25). After the first failure, Sir Raleigh decided to take another attempt at English settlement in Roanoke. During this second attempt, which took place in 1587, Raleigh chose to mix up the prospective English settlement. The recruits comprised of ninety one men, seventeen women and nine children (Kupperman

Abacus Distribution plc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Abacus Distribution plc - Essay Example The Group has adopted a customer service policy with more personalised local service and a strong technical support. This ensures the company’s performance in providing quality products and support from a strongly motivated workforce. The company has an office in Asia with manufacturing operations extended in the Far East to supply European customers, quality products at competitive prices. In general, the objective of a company must be to create value for its shareholders. Value is represented by the market price of the company’s common stock, which in turn is a function of the firm’s investment, financing, and dividend decisions. The basic idea of managing finance in any business venture therefore is to acquire assets and invest in new products and services where expected return exceeds their cost, to finance with those instruments where there is particular advantage, tax or otherwise and to undertake a meaningful dividend policy for stockholders. (Ross et al.) These functions define the scope and role of financial management in any organisation. The financial management function thus concerns the acquisition, financing, and management of assets with the overall organisational goals in mind. In line with the above principles of financial management the company has taken the following actions in the financial discipline. During the year 2004 the company embarked on a major capital expenditure in upgrading the business system of the company scheduled to be completed in the year 2007. The company has adopted a policy of acquiring large properties on a freehold basis. In line with this policy the company has invested in the acquisition of subsidiaries to the extent of  £2.1 million, a net investment of  £1.1 million in plant, machinery, and equipments, and a small investment of  £0.1 million in land and building. There is an investment of  £50 million representing the acquisition of Deltron Electronics Group UK having subsidiaries in

Business ethics Essay Example for Free

Business ethics Essay The quandary people find themselves in when they have to decide if they should act in a way that might help another person or group, and is the â€Å"right† thing to do, even though doing so might not be in their own self-interest. A dilemma may also arise when a person has to decide between two different courses of action, knowing that whichever course he or she chooses will result in harm to one person or group even though it may benefit another. The ethical dilemma here is to decide which course of action is the â€Å"lesser of two evils. † Suppose we see a person being mugged in the street. How will we behave? Will we act in some way to help even though you risk being hurt? Will we walk away? Perhaps we might adopt a â€Å"middle-of-the-road approach† and not intervene but call the police instead? Does the way we act depend on whether the person being mugged is a fit male, an elderly person, or even a street person? Does it depend on whether there are other people around, so we can tell ourselves, â€Å"Oh well, someone else will help or call the police. I don’t need to†? People often know they are confronting an ethical dilemma when their moral scruples come into play and cause them to hesitate, debate, and reflect upon the â€Å"rightness† or â€Å"goodness† of a course of action. Moral scruples are thoughts and feelings that tell a person what is right or wrong; they are a part of a person’s ethics. Ethics Ethics are the inner-guiding moral principles, values, and beliefs people use to analyze a situation and decide what is â€Å"right. † At the same time, ethics also indicate what inappropriate behavior is and how a person should behave to avoid doing harm to another person. Ethics is that study or discipline which concerns itself with judgments of approval and disapproval, judgments as to the rightness or wrongness, goodness or badness, virtue or vice, desirability or wisdom of actions, dispositions, ends, objects, or states of affairs. There are two main directions which this study may take. It may concern itself with a psychological or sociological analysis and explanation of our ethical judgments, showing what our approvals and disapprovals consist in and why we approve or disapprove what we do. Or it may concern itself with establishing or recommending certain courses of action, ends, or ways of life as to be taken or pursued, either as right or as good or as virtuous or as wise, as over against others which are wrong, bad, vicious, or foolish. The essential problem in dealing with ethical issues, and thus solving moral dilemmas, is that there are no absolute or indisputable rules or principles that can be developed to decide if an action is ethical or unethical. Put simply, different people or groups may dispute which actions are ethical or unethical depending on their own personal self-interest and specific attitudes, beliefs, and values. Ethical Behavior It is one thing to decide, in theory, that being ethical is good; in practice, it can be much more difficult to make the right decisions. Many people feel the same way about ethics—that somehow, instinctively, they know what is right and wrong. In real life, however, ethical dilemmas are often not black and white, but many shades of gray. The following ethics checklist will aid to managers in making tough decisions: †¢ What are the facts? †¢ What are the critical issues? †¢ Who are the stakeholders? †¢ What are the alternatives? †¢ What are the ethical implications of each alternative? †¢ Is it legal? †¢ How would it look in the light of day? †¢ What are the consequences? †¢ Does it violate important values? †¢ What kind of world would this be if everyone behaved this way? †¢ Is more than one alternative right? †¢ Which values are in conflict? †¢ Which of these values are most important? †¢ Can you find an alternative that is consistent with your values? What Are the Facts? Although this question seems obvious, people often forget in the heat of battle to listen to (and, more importantly, to hear) all the different viewpoints. Instead of relying on hearsay and rumor, it is crucial to discover the facts, firsthand, from the people involved. There is always another side to the story. What Are the Critical Issues? In analyzing ethical dilemmas, expand your thinking to include all the important issues. Avoid a narrow focus that encompasses only one or two aspects. Who Are the Stakeholders? Stakeholders are all the people potentially affected by the decision. That list might include subordinates, bosses, shareholders, suppliers, customers, members of the community in which the business operates, society as a whole, or even more remote stakeholders, such as future generations. The interests of these stakeholders often conflict. Current shareholders may benefit from a company’s decision to manufacture a product that contributes to global warming, while future generations are left to contend with a potential environmental nightmare. What Are the Alternatives? The next step is to list the reasonable alternatives. A creative manager may find a clever solution that is a winner for everyone. What Are the Ethical Implications of Each Alternative? Is the Alternative Legal? Illegal may not always be synonymous with unethical, but, as a general rule, you need to think long and hard about the ethics of any illegal activities. How Would the Alternative Look in the Light of Day? If your activities were reported on the evening news, how would you feel? Proud? Embarrassed? Horrified? What Are the Consequences of This Alternative? Ask yourself: Am I hurting anyone by this decision? Which alternative will cause the greatest good (or the least harm) to the most people? For example, you would like to fire an incompetent employee. That decision will clearly have adverse consequences for him. But the other employees in your division will benefit and so will the shareholders of your company. Overall, your decision will cause more good than harm. You should look with a particularly critical eye if an alternative benefits you while harming others. Suppose that you become CEO of a company whose headquarters are located in a distant suburb. You would like to move the headquarters closer to your home to cut your commuting time. Of course, such a decision would be expensive for shareholders and inconvenient for other employees. Do you simply impose your will on the company or consider the consequences for everyone? Does the Alternative Violate Important Values? In addition to consequences, consider fundamental values. It is possible to commit an act that does not harm anyone else, but is still the wrong thing to do. Some people question whether, as a diverse, heterogeneous society, we have common values. The following values are almost universal: †¢ Compassion means being aware of and concerned about other people’s feelings, desires, and needs. The compassionate person is able to imagine how he would feel in someone else’s place. †¢ Courage is the strength to act in the face of fear and danger. Courage can require dramatic action (saving a buddy on a battlefield) or quiet strength (doing what you think is right, despite opposition from your boss). †¢ Fairness requires that decisions be made without fraud, prejudice or favoritism. The fair manager treats those he likes at work the same as those who are not his friends. †¢ Integrity means being sincere, honest, and loyal. If you have integrity, you do not criticize others behind their back or take credit for their ideas and efforts. †¢ Responsibility means being trustworthy and dependable. The responsible person meets her commitments, lives up to her promises and contributes to her community. People can count on her. †¢ Self-control is the ability to resist temptation. The person with self-control does not drink or eat too much, party too hard, watch too much television, or spend too much money. Try compiling your own list of values and then check it periodically to see if you are living up to it in your business and personal life. What Kind of World Would This Be if Everyone Behaved This Way? Is this the kind of world in which you would want to live? Imagine that you could cheat on an exam without getting caught. You might gain some short-term benefit—a higher grade. But what would happen if everyone cheated? The professor would have to make the exams harder or curve everyone’s grade down. If your school developed a reputation for cheating, you might not be able to find a job after graduation. Cheating works where most people are honest. To take advantage of everyone else’s honesty is contemptible. Is More than One Alternative Right? Often, the most difficult decisions arise not in cases of right versus wrong but in situations of right versus right. 10 President Harry Truman’s decision to drop atomic bombs on two Japanese cities is a classic example of right versus right. He argued that if he had not ended the war by using nuclear weapons, more Americans and Japanese would have died during a land invasion. Looking simply at the consequences, he concluded that the terrible suffering by the Japanese people was justified because, ultimately, fewer people died overall. At the same time, none of us want to live in a world where nuclear weapons are used. Indeed, since the end of World War II, the United States has worked hard to ensure that no one else ever deploys nuclear weapons. Which Values Are in Conflict? There are many ways to justify a decision to lay off workers, even 40,000 of them. If managers avoid layoffs, then profits suffer, stock prices fall, companies merge, and executives lose their own jobs. Which of These Values Are Most Important? Suppose that, growing up, you had seen family members or neighbors suffering through bouts of unemployment. That experience might have taught you that compassion is a high priority. Managers must determine which values are important in their own lives. Can You Find an Alternative That Is Consistent with Your Values? The decision you make not only determines the kind of person you are now, but also sets your course for the future. Can you reach a decision that is consistent with the kind of person you are or want to be? Instead of announcing massive layoffs, some companies offer generous severance packages, retraining programs, and other voluntary methods of reducing the workforce. Shareholders may receive less benefit, but employees suffer less harm. Changes in Ethics Change over time: Neither laws nor ethics are fixed principles cast in stone, however. Both change over time. As a society’s ethical beliefs change, its laws change to reflect them. It was considered both ethical and legal to own slaves in ancient Rome and Greece and in the United States until the nineteenth century. Ethical views regarding whether slavery was morally right subsequently changed, however, and slavery was later outlawed. Confusing behavior: In most societies today behaviors like murder, theft, slavery, and rape are considered unacceptable and prohibited. But many other kinds of behaviors are open to dispute when it comes to whether they are ethical or should be made illegal or not. Some people might believe that a particular behavior such as smoking tobacco or possessing guns is unethical and should be made illegal. Others might argue that it is up to individual people if they want to own guns or smoke. Vary from country to country: In the United States it is, of course, illegal to possess or use marijuana even though it has been shown to have many medical uses. Some cancer sufferers and AIDS patients find that marijuana relieves many of the side effects of medical treatment, like nausea and lack of appetite. Yet, in the United States, the Supreme Court has held that the federal government can prohibit doctors from prescribing marijuana to these patients, so their suffering goes on. By contrast in Canada there has been a widespread movement to decriminalize marijuana, and in other countries, marijuana is perfectly legal. Laws can and do change as people’s ethical beliefs change: The point is laws can and do change as people’s ethical beliefs change. For example, in Britain in 1830, there were over 350 different crimes for which a person could be executed, including sheep stealing. Today there are none. Capital punishment has been abolished. No absolute standards exist to determine how we should behave: No absolute standards exist to determine how we should behave. Consequently, we frequently get caught in moral dilemmas and are continually faced with ethical choices. It is a part of life. Importance of Ethics to Society Does ethical behavior maximize profitability? Some people argue that, in the long run, ethical behavior does indeed pay. But they must mean the very long run, because to date there is little evidence that ethical behavior necessarily pays financially, either in the short or the long run. Society as a whole benefits from ethical behavior: Ethics and competitiveness are inseparable. We compete as a society. No society anywhere will compete very long or successfully with people stabbing each other in the back; with people trying to steal from each other; with everything requiring notarized confirmation because you can’t trust the other fellow; with every little squabble ending in litigation; and with government writing reams of regulatory legislation, tying business hand and foot to keep it honest. That is a recipe not only for headaches in running a company; it is a recipe for a nation to become wasteful, inefficient, and noncompetitive. There is no escaping this fact: the greater the measure of mutual trust and confidence in the ethics of a society, the greater its economic strength. Money does not buy happiness: Researchers who study happiness find that people expect material goods to make them happier than they actually do. Sure, you enjoy driving that snappy new car home from the dealership, but afterward your happiness quickly returns to its natural base level. People find themselves on the so-called â€Å"hedonic treadmill†Ã¢â‚¬â€struggling to buy more and more things so they can get that buyer’s high, only to discover that they can never buy enough to maintain the thrill. Almost no matter how much people earn, they feel they would be happier if their income were just a little bit higher. So what does make people happy in the long run? Good relationships, satisfying work, ties to the community—all available at no additional cost. People feel better when they behave ethically: Profitability is generally not what motivates managers to care about ethics. Managers want to feel good about themselves and the decisions they have made; they want to sleep at night. Their decisions—to lay off employees, install safety devices in cars, burn a cleaner fuel—affect peoples’ lives. Unethical behavior can be very costly: Unethical behavior is a risky business strategy—it may lead to disaster. An engaged couple made a reservation, and put down a $1,500 deposit, to hold their wedding reception at a New Hampshire restaurant. Tragically, the bride died of asthma four months before the wedding. Invoking the terms of the contract, the restaurant owner refused to return the couple’s deposit. In a letter to the groom, he admitted, â€Å"Morally, I would of course agree that the deposit should be returned. † When newspapers reported this story, customers deserted the restaurant and it was forced into bankruptcy—over a $1,500 disagreement. Unethical behavior does not always damage a business, but it certainly has the potential of destroying a company overnight. So why take the risk? Even if unethical behavior does not devastate a business, it can cause other, subtler damage. In one survey, a majority of those questioned said that they had witnessed unethical behavior in their workplace and that this behavior had reduced productivity, job stability, and profits. Unethical behavior in an organization creates a cynical, resentful, and unproductive workforce. Ethical behavior is more likely to pay off: Although there is no guarantee that ethical behavior pays in the short or long run, there is evidence that the ethical company is more likely to win financially. Ethical companies tend to have a better reputation, more creative and cooperative employees and higher returns than those that engage in wrong-doing. So why bother with ethics? Because when managers behave ethically, society will be benefited. Money does not buy happiness. Because ethical managers have happier, more satisfying lives. Because unethical behavior can destroy a business faster than a snake can bite. And because, in the end, ethical behavior is more likely to pay off. Stakeholders and Business Ethics The people and groups affected by the way a company does business are called its stakeholders. Stakeholders supply a company with its productive resources. As a result, they have a claim on and stake in the company. Because stakeholders can directly benefit or be harmed by its actions, the business ethics of a company and its managers are important to them. These various stakeholders are shown in Figure Stockholders Stockholders have a claim on a company because when they buy its stock, or shares, they become its owners. This stock grants them the right to receive some of the company’s profits in the form of dividends. And they expect to get these dividends. Stockholders are interested in the way a company operates because they want to maximize their return on their investment. Thus, they watch the company and its managers closely to ensure they are working diligently to increase the company’s profitability. Stockholders also want to ensure that managers are behaving ethically and not risking investors’ capital by engaging in actions that could hurt the company’s reputation and quickly bankrupt it. Managers Managers are a vital stakeholder group because they are responsible for using a company’s financial capital and human resources to increase its profitability and stock price. Managers have a claim on an organization because they bring to it their skills, expertise, and experience. They have the right to expect a good return or reward by investing their human capital to improve a company’s performance. Such rewards include good salaries and benefits, the prospect of promotion and a career, and stock options and bonuses tied to the company’s performance. Managers must be motivated and given incentives to work hard in the interests of stockholders. Their behavior must also be scrutinized to ensure they do not behave illegally or unethically and pursue goals that threaten stockholders’ (and employees’) interests. Employees A company’s employees are the hundreds of thousands of people who work in its various functions, like research, sales, and manufacturing. Employees expect that they will receive rewards consistent with their performance. One principal way a company acts ethically toward employees and meets their expectations is by creating an occupational structure that fairly and equitably rewards them for their contributions. Companies, for example, need to develop recruitment, training, performance appraisal, and reward systems that do not discriminate between employees and that employees believe are fair. Suppliers and Distributors No company operates alone. Every company relies on a network of other companies that supply it with the inputs it needs to operate. Companies also depend on intermediaries such as wholesalers and retailers to distribute its products to the final customer. Suppliers expect to be paid fairly and promptly for their inputs; distributors expect to receive quality products at agreed-upon prices. Once again, many ethical issues arise in the way companies contract and interact with their suppliers and distributors. Important issues concerning how and when payments are to be made or product quality specifications are governed by the terms of the legal contracts a company signs with its suppliers and distributors. Many other issues are dependent on business ethics. Customers Customers are often regarded as the most critical stakeholders: If a company cannot persuade them to buy its products, it cannot stay in business. Thus, managers and employees must work to increase efficiency and effectiveness in order to create loyal customers and attract new ones. They do so by selling customers quality products at a fair price and providing good after-sales service. They can also strive to improve their products over time. Many laws exist that protect customers from companies that attempt to provide dangerous or shoddy products. Laws exist that allow customers to sue a company that produces a bad product, such as a defective tire or vehicle, causing them harm. Other laws force companies to clearly disclose the interest rates they charge on purchases—a cost that customers frequently do not factor into their purchase decisions. Every year thousands of companies are prosecuted for breaking these laws, so â€Å"buyer beware† is an important business rule customers must follow. Community, Society, and Nation Community refers to the physical location in which a company is located, like a city, town, or neighborhood. A community provides a company with the physical and social infrastructure that allows it to do business; its utilities and labor force; the homes in which its managers and employees live; the schools, colleges, and hospitals that service their needs, and so on. Through the salaries, wages, and taxes it pays, a company contributes to the economy of the town or region in which it operates and often determines whether the community prospers or suffers. Similarly, a company affects the prosperity of a society and a nation and, to the degree that a company is involved in global trade, all of the countries in which it operates. Sources of Business Ethics Primarily ethics in business is affected by three sources culture, religion and laws of the state. It is for this reason we do not have uniform or completely similar standards across the globe. These three factors exert influences to varying degrees on humans which ultimately get reflected in the ethics of the organization. Religion It is one of the oldest foundations of ethical standards. Religion wields varying influences across various sects of people. It is believed that ethics is a manifestation of the divine and so it draws a line between the good and the bad in the society. Depending upon the degree of religious influence we have different sects of people; we have sects, those who are referred to as orthodox or fundamentalists and those who are called as moderates. Needless to mention, religion exerts itself to a greater degree among the orthodox and to lesser extent in case of moderates. Fundamentally however all the religions operate on the principle of reciprocity towards ones fellow beings. Culture Culture is a pattern of behaviors and values that are transferred from one generation to another, those that are considered as ideal or within the acceptable limits. No wonder therefore that it is the culture that predominantly determines what is wrong and what is right. It is the culture that defines certain behavior as acceptable and others as unacceptable. Human civilization in fact has passed through various cultures, wherein the moral code was redrafted depending upon the epoch that was. What was immoral or unacceptable in certain culture became acceptable later on and vice versa. During the early years of human development where ones who were the strongest were the ones who survived! Violence, hostility and ferocity were thus the acceptable. Approximately 10,000 year ago when human civilization entered the settlement phase, hard work, patience and peace were seen as virtues and the earlier ones were considered otherwise. These values are still put in practice by the managers of today. Still further, when human civilization witnessed the industrial revolution, the ethics of agrarian economy was replaced by the law pertaining to technology, property rights etc. Ever since a tussle has ensued between the values of the agrarian and the industrial economy! Law Laws are procedures and code of conduct that are laid down by the legal system of the state. They are meant to guide human behavior within the social fabric. The major problem with the law is that all the ethical expectations cannot be covered by the law and specially with ever changing outer environment the law keeps on changing but often fails to keep pace. In business, complying with the rule of law is taken as ethical behavior, but organizations often break laws by evading taxes, compromising on quality, service norms etc. Childhood Upbringing Without really thinking or even being able to avoid it, each person learns ethics from his or her parents—what they teach in words and perhaps more importantly through their actions. These teachings shape our most fundamental attitudes about what is right and what is wrong. As a very brief insurance-related example, the child of an insurance agent, upon reaching adulthood, is much more likely to be honest and truthful in settling claims under his or her insurance policies than is the grown child of another insurance agent if the other agent was terminated by the insurer under disputed circumstances. The child may not have understood the intricacies of those circumstances at the time, but as an adult, he or she is likely to believe in their heart that insurers are not to be trusted and do not deserve to be treated honestly. Later Life Experiences Similarly, a life-shaping event later in life may more directly and consciously shape a persons ethics. Thus, someone severely injured in an automobile accident may have a much higher opinion of the entire automobile-injury reparations system—including the police who investigated, the hospital that provided care, the lawyers and courts that resolved any legal issues, and the insurers that helped finance so much of the injured persons recovery—if that person is satisfied with the ultimate medical and financial result months and years after the accident. If, however, this victim feels the result was medically inferior or legally unfair, the victim may well treat everyone in the system unfairly—even years later in circumstances unrelated to the original accident—just to seek some measure of personal justice. Religious Beliefs Virtually all the worlds religions teach an essentially similar code of ethics that emphasizes honesty, respect for others and their rights, and selflessness. Therefore, in both business and personal situations, a highly religious person is likely to act in ways that most of us will regard as highly ethical. Their religion will give them highly explicit, generally internally consistent, guides to good personal conduct. These guidelines usually can be broadened to apply quite well to business activity. Moreover, those for whom religion is not a central force in their lives are more likely to act in self-centered, ethically questionable ways. Codes of Ethics Perhaps the most direct and explicit sources of our daily ethical guidance are codes of ethics for business conduct. Whether issued by professional societies (such as the Risk and Insurance Management Society, the Society of Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriters, or the American Society of Safety Engineers), by a business or fraternal society (such as an insurance agents association or the Lions or Elks), or by civic groups (such as local or national chambers of commerce), these ethical codes generally have two goals. The first is to set forth objectives like quality output, honesty, and public service in the customer or community dealings by the people who are governed by, or choose to subscribe to, a particular code. The second typical goal is to protect those to whom the code applies from harmful conduct by others governed by that particular code—conduct such as unfair competition or actions that that cast the entire group in a bad light. This second goal often is expressed through rather specific rules about what those governed by the code definitely must, or must not, do in their dealings with customers, one another, and the public at large. These self-protective rules can sometimes appear to conflict with religious, philosophical, or other sources of ethical guidance. Discussions with Others Almost daily, quite casually, and sometimes without thinking, virtually all of us talk about others and our own actions—offering frequent opinions about whether what they or we have been doing is good, right, and sensible (or perhaps very much the opposite). Buried in this small talk, chit chat, gossip, and mealtime conversations are implicit—sometimes very explicit—ethical judgments about the behavior being discussed. People and their words and actions are labeled wonderful, mean, greedy, generous, or hundreds of other qualities. Over time, these discussions lead each of us to a sense of what the people around us consider to be good and bad, ethical and unethical, conduct. Unless we have strong personal reasons or other commitments to believe otherwise, most of us tend to go along with the opinions of those around us, rather than bucking the tide by independently evaluating the ethical aspects of others actions. Thus, often almost automatically, the social consensus can become the approved, although unexamined, ethical standard. Ethical Philosophers In sharp contrast to these ethics of casual social consensus, the philosophers who have developed systems of ethics—such people as Plato, Aristotle, Kant, Bentham, and more recent ethical thinkers throughout the world—have developed basic principles from which they have derived systems of ethics. These principles fall into two general groups: those that are rules-based and those that are results-based. Examples of rule-based ethics appear in the Bibles Ten Commandments, in many professions codes of ethics, and in the Golden Rule: Do unto others as you would have others do unto you. Results-based systems of ethics emphasize principles such as physicians never knowingly doing or allowing medical harm; doing the greatest good for the greatest number of people (Bentham and other utilitarian), and Kants principle of universality—taking an action only if everyone could take the same action without bringing about more harm than good and without creating logical impossibilities (like the logical impossibility of every person being more generous to every other person than anyone is to the first person). Ethical Dilemmas. A final source of ethical insight (more a way of developing ones ethical awareness and sensibilities than a separate source of ethical guidance) is pondering ethical dilemmas. These dilemmas are real or imagined situations that pit two or more ethical principles, rules, or objectives against one another. To resolve the dilemma, one has to decide which of these ethically desirable ends is the more/most important or, alternatively, if there is a way to achieve both/all of these ends without committing some other ethical wrong. For example, if you are an adult and your father, convicted as a murderer, has escaped a federal prison in California to hide in your Missouri house, how do you respond when an FBI agent standing in your yard asks Is your father in your house now? Assuming he is, Yes breaks the commandment to honor ones parents, but No breaks the commandment to tell the truth in all morally significant situations. (When your spouse asks if she/he is especially beautiful/handsome as you are leaving you house to go to a friends birthday party, your response probably is not ethically significant for the community, but it may be very significant within your marriage. ) Classification of Ethics Ethics may be divided into four major areas of study 1. Meta-ethics 2. Normative ethics 3. Descriptive ethics 4. Applied ethics Meta-ethics Meta-ethics is a field within ethics that seeks to understand the nature of normative ethics. The focus of meta-ethics is on how we understand, know about, and what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong. Normative Ethics Normative ethics is the study of ethical action. It is the branch of philosophical ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act, morally speaking. Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics because it examines standards for the rightness and wrongnes.